JBY Notes:

1.  Text was scanned from Book II and is a translation from
     Bruder's 1843  Latin  text  by  R.H.M.  Elwes  (1883).
     JBY  added  sentence  numbers. 
  
2.   (y:xx):   y = Chapter  Number,  if  given;   xx = Sentence  Number.
 
3.   Page  numbers  are  those  of  Book II.
 
4.   Citation abbreviations.
 
5.  ( Spinoza's Footnote or the Latin word ) , 
     ] Shirley's Bk. XI (or XIII) translation variance or note [ , 
     { JBY comment, emendation, or endnote }.    LINKS 

6.  Please  e-mail  errors,  clarification  requests,  disagreement,
     or  suggestions  to  josephb@yesselman.com. 

7.  TEXT version without links and and without commentary. 
     Latin version on a CD. 
 
8.  There  is  much  in  this  work  that you will not agree with or even          Graetz's Censure
     think  nonsense—although  keep  in mind that Spinoza was under 
     the constraints of religious  intolerance.    Spinoza was born in the 
     very year (1632) that  the inquisitorial denunciation of Galileo took 
     place.  However,  partake  of  the work (and my commentaries) as 
     you  would  a  pomegranate; relish  the  flesh,  but spit-out the pits. 

9.  EL:[7]:viii, EL:[11]:xi, EL:[17]:xiii, EL:[22]:xvi, EL:[64]:xxxi, EL:xxxiii:J6, 
     L19:296, L20:297, L23:301, L49:364,  old vocabulary in new bottles.  
                                                                {Scriptural Theology}         Hampshire:205
10. The  chief  aim  of  the whole treatise is to separate  faith ^ {Religion}          Smith:Divine Law
      from philosophy.  ]Shirley:37—What emerges in the TTP, as far as is Spinoza           Hampshire:203 & 205
      concerned, is the possibility of a this-worldly blessedness for both the rational person               TL:L36(23):345
       (through philosophy) and the common person (through purified religion),[                    EL:L21:(73):298
      {By my defining Religion as an hypothesis, the two are synthesized.}                     Philosophy / Religion
 
11.  Links - To differentiate links from quotations (both blue text) set your
                  browser options to show links underlined. 
 
12.  Suggestion:  Do  not  read this Spinoza electronic text consecutively      Durant's Story
       as  you  would a novel, but rather follow a thread  by following all its        Schorsch
       links  in  turn.   You will then be putting hypertexting to its fullest and         EL:[3]:vi
       best advantage—the fuller discussion of a thread.  If you do not stick 
       to one thread (idea) at a time,  this Web Site will be very convoluted,       Tickle the Fancy
       confusing, and an annoying maze. 

       If you prefer to read linearly, read these plain vanilla text versions,
       abridged versions, e-book versions, or best, study the printed book—
       book page numbers are given for most scanned books.
 

   Part                   Chapters

Author's Notes to Theologico-Political Treatise - Part 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS:                                  Bk.II Page Numbers

Authors Endnotes to the Treatise

transcends  human  understanding,  so  also do they style Divine, or

the work of G-D, anything of which the cause is not generally known:        Metaphors, Referral 

for the masses think that the power and providence of G-D are most       Chain of Natural Events 

clearly displayed by events that are extraordinary and contrary to the

conception  they  have  formed  of  Nature,  especially if such events
                            Bk.XIA:3341—advantage.
bring  them  any  profit  or  convenience:  they think that the clearest

possible  proof  of  G-D's existence is afforded when nature, as they

suppose,  breaks  her  accustomed  order,  and  consequently  they

believe  that  those  who explain or endeavour to understand pheno-

mena  or  miracles through their natural causes are doing away with

G-D  and  His  providence.  (6:2)  They  suppose, forsooth, that God is               Referral 

inactive  so long as nature works in her accustomed order, and vice

versâ,  that  the power of nature and natural causes are idle so long

as God is acting: thus they imagine two powers distinct one from the

other,  the  power  of God and the power of nature, though the latter

is  in  a  sense  determined by God, or (as most people believe now)

created by Him.  (6:3) What they mean by either, and what they under-

stand by God and nature they do not know, except that they imagine

the  power  of  God  to  be  like  that  of  some  royal  potentate, and

nature's power to consist in force and energy.




(6:4)   The  masses  then  style  unusual  phenomena,  "miracles,"  and            Hampshire:206

partly  from  piety,  partly  for  the  sake  of opposing  the students of

science,  prefer  to  remain  in ignorance of natural causes, and only

to  hear  of  those  things  which  they know least, and consequently

admire  most.  (6:5)  In  fact,  the  common  people can only adore God,

and  refer  all  things  to  His power by removing natural causes, and

conceiving  things  happening  out  of  their  due  course,   and  only

admires  page 82  the  power  of  God  when  the  power  of  nature  is

conceived of as in subjection to it.



(6:6) This  idea  seems  to  have  taken  its  rise among the early Jews

who  saw the Gentiles round them worshipping visible gods such as

the  sun,  the  moon, the earth, water, air, &c., and in order to inspire

the  conviction  that  such  divinities  were  weak  and  inconstant, or

changeable,  told  how  they  themselves were under the sway of an

invisible  God,  and  narrated  their  miracles,  trying  further to show

that  the  God  whom  they worshipped arranged the whole of nature

for  their  sole  benefit:  this  idea  was  so  pleasing to humanity that

men  go  on  to this day imagining miracles, so that they may believe

themselves  God's  favourites,  and  the  final  cause  for  which God

created and directs all things.



(6:7)  What  pretension  will  not  people in their folly advance!  (8) They

have  no  single  sound  idea  concerning either God or nature, they

confound  God's decrees with human decrees, they conceive nature

as  so  limited  that  they  believe  man to be its chief part!  (6:9) I have

spent   enough  space  in  setting  forth  these  common  ideas  and

prejudices  concerning nature and miracles, but  in order to afford a

regular demonstration I will show—   { EL:L20:297, EL:L21:298, EL:L22:299. }

< Parkinson:279118—Neff-L60(56):385, last paragraph. >    { Nature and Miracles } 

                                                     Bk.XIA:3342.
I.        (6:10) That  nature cannot be contravened, but that she preserves
       a  fixed  and immutable order, and at the same time I will explain
       what is meant by a miracle. 

II.     (6:11)  That  God's nature  and  existence,  and  consequently His     Omnipotence & Omniscience 
       providence  cannot  be  known  from miracles, but that they can
       all  be  much  better  perceived  from  the  fixed  and  immutable
       order of nature.

III.    (6:12) That  by  the  decrees  and  volitions, and consequently the
       providence  of  God,   Scripture  (as  I  will  prove  by  Scriptural
       examples)  means  nothing  but  nature's  order following neces-
       sarily from her eternal laws. 

IV.   (6:13)  Lastly,  I  will  treat  of  the  method of interpreting Scriptural
       miracles,   and   the  chief  points  to  be  noted  concerning  the
       narratives of them.


(6:14)  Such  are  the  principal  subjects which will be discussed in this

chapter,  and which will serve, I think, not a little to further the object

of this treatise.



(6:15) Our first point is easily proved from what we showed in Chap. IV.

about  Divine law—namely,  that all that God  page 83  wishes or deter-

mines involves eternal necessity and truth, for we demonstrated that

God's  understanding is identical with His will, and that it is the same

thing  to  say that God wills a thing, as to say that He understands it;

hence,  as  it  follows necessarily from the Divine nature and perfec-

tion  that  God  understands  a thing as it is, it follows no less neces-

sarily  that  He  wills it as it is.  (16) Now, as nothing is necessarily true

save  only  by  Divine  decree,  it  is  plain  that the universal laws of

nature  are  decrees of God following from the necessity and perfec-

tion of the Divine nature.  (6:17) Hence, any event happening in nature

which  contravened  nature's  universal laws, would necessarily also

contravene  the Divine decree, nature, and understanding; or if any-

one  asserted  that  God  acts in contravention to the laws of nature,

he,  ipso facto, would be compelled to assert that God acted against
                                        Bk.XX:27588. 
His  own  nature—an evident absurdity.  (6:18)  One might easily show

from  the  same premises that the power and efficiency of nature are

in  themselves  the  Divine power and efficiency, and that the Divine

power is the very essence of God, but this I gladly pass over for the

present.



(6:19)  Nothing,  then,  comes  to  pass  in  nature  (N.B. I do not mean here by

"nature,"  merely  matter  and  its  modifications,  but infinite other things besides matter.) in

contravention  to  her  universal  laws,  nay,  everything agrees with

them  and  follows from them, for whatsoever comes to pass, comes

to  pass  by  the  will  and eternal decree of God; that is, as we have

just  pointed out, whatever comes to pass, comes to pass according

to  laws  and rules which involve eternal necessity and truth; nature,

therefore,  always  observes  laws  and  rules  which involve eternal

necessity  and  truth,  although they may not all be known to us, and

therefore  she  keeps  a  fixed and immutable order.  (6:20) Nor is there

any  sound  reason for limiting the power and efficacy of nature, and

asserting  that  her  laws  are  fit for certain purposes, but not for all;

for  as  the  efficacy  and  power of nature, are the very efficacy and

power  of  God, and as the laws and rules of nature are the decrees

of  God,  it  is in every way to be believed that the power of nature is

infinite,  and  that her laws are broad enough to embrace everything

conceived  by  the  Divine  intellect;  the  only alternative is to assert

that  God  has  created  nature so weak, and has  page 84   ordained for

her  laws  so barren, that He is repeatedly compelled to come afresh

to  her  aid  if  He  wishes  that  she  should  be  preserved, and that

things  should  happen  as  He  desires: a conclusion, in my opinion,

very  far  removed  from reason.  (6:21) Further, as nothing happens in

nature   which  does  not  follow  from  her  laws,   and  as  her  laws

embrace  everything  conceived  by  the  Divine  intellect, and lastly,

as  nature  preserves  a  fixed  and  immutable  order; it most clearly

follows  that  miracles  are  only  intelligible  as  in  relation to human

opinions,   and  merely  mean  events  of  which  the  natural  cause

cannot  be  explained  by  a  reference  to  any ordinary occurrence,
                                                                                        Bk.XIA:3340.
either  by us, or at any rate, by the writer and narrator of the miracle.



(6:22) We  may,  in  fact,  say  that  a  miracle  is  an event of which the

causes  cannot  be  explained by the natural reason through a refer-

ence  to  ascertained  workings  of  nature;  but  since miracles were

wrought  according  to  the  understanding  of  the masses,  who are

wholly  ignorant  of  the  workings  of  nature,  it  is  certain  that  the

ancients  took  for  a  miracle whatever they could not explain by the

method   adopted   by  the  unlearned  in  such  cases,   namely,  an

appeal  to  the  memory,  a  recalling  of  something  similar, which is  

ordinarily  regarded  without  wonder;   for  most  people  think  they

sufficiently  understand  a  thing  when they have ceased to wonder

at  it.  (6:23)  The  ancients, then, and indeed most men up to the pres-

ent  day,  had  no  other  criterion  for  a  miracle;  hence  we cannot

doubt  that  many  things  are  narrated  in  Scripture  as miracles of

which  the  causes  could easily be explained by reference to ascer-

tained workings of nature.  (6:24) We have hinted as much in Chap. II.,

in speaking of the sun standing still in the time of Joshua, and going

backwards  in  the time of Ahaz; but we shall soon have more to say

on   the  subject  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  interpretation  of

miracles later on in this chapter.



(6:25)  It  is  now time to pass on to the second point, and show that we

cannot gain an understanding of God's essence, existence, or provi-

dence  by  means  of miracles, but that these truths are much better

perceived   through   the   fixed   and   immutable   order   of  nature.



(6:26)  I  thus proceed with the demonstration.  (27) As God's existence is

not self-evident (6) it must necessarily be inferred from   page 85   ideas

so  firmly  and incontrovertibly true, that no power can be postulated
                                            Bk.XIX:29622.
or  conceived  sufficient to impugn them.  (28) They ought certainly so

to appear to us when we infer from them God's existence, if we wish

to  place  our  conclusion  beyond the reach of doubt; for if we could

conceive  that such ideas could be impugned by any power whatso-

ever,  we should doubt of their truth, we should doubt of our conclu-

sion,  namely,  of  God's  existence,  and should never be able to be

certain of anything.  (6:29) Further, we know that nothing either agrees

with  or  is  contrary  to nature, unless it agrees with or is contrary to

these  primary  ideas;  wherefore if we would conceive that anything

could  be done  in nature  by any power whatsoever which would be

contrary  to  the  laws  of  nature,  it  would  also  be  contrary  to our

primary  ideas,  and  we  should have either to reject it as absurd, or

else  to cast doubt (as just shown) on our primary ideas, and conse-

quently  on  the  existence  of  God,  and  on  everything howsoever

perceived.   (6:30)  Therefore  miracles, in the sense of events contrary

to  the  laws of nature, so far from demonstrating to us the existence
                                                               Bk.XIA:3343.
of God, would, on the contrary, lead us to doubt it, where, otherwise,

we  might  have been absolutely certain of it, as knowing that nature
                   Bk.XIA:3342.
follows a fixed and immutable order.



(6:31)  Let  us  take miracle as meaning that which cannot be explained

through  natural  causes.  (32)  This  may be interpreted in two senses:

either  as that which has natural causes, but cannot be examined by

the  human  intellect;  or  as  that which has no cause save God and

God's  will.  (6:33) But as all things which come to pass through natural

causes, come to pass also solely through the will and power of God,

it  comes to this, that a miracle, whether it has natural causes or not,

is  a  result  which cannot be explained by its cause, that is a pheno-

menon  which  surpasses  human  understanding;  but  from  such a

phenomenon,  and  certainly  from  a  result  surpassing  our  under-

standing,   we   can  gain  no  knowledge.   (6:34)  For  whatsoever  we

understand  clearly  and  distinctly  should  be  plain  to  us  either in

itself  or  by  means  of  something  else  clearly and distinctly under-

stood;  wherefore from a miracle or a phenomenon which we cannot

understand,  we  can  gain no knowledge of G-D's essence, or exist-

ence,  or  indeed  anything  about G-D or Nature; whereas when we

know  that   page 86  all  things  are  ordained  and ratified by God, that

the  operations  of  nature  follow from the essence of God, and that

the  laws  of  nature  are  eternal  decrees  and  volitions of God, we

must  perforce  conclude  that  our  knowledge  of God, and of God's

will  increases in proportion to our knowledge and clear understand-

ing  of  nature,  as  we  see  how  she depends on her primal cause,

and  how  she works according to eternal law.  (6:35) Wherefore so far

as our understanding goes, those phenomena which we clearly and

distinctly  understand  have  much  better right to be called works of

God,  and  to  be  referred  to the will of God than those about which

we  are  entirely  ignorant,  although  they  appeal  powerfully  to the

imagination, and compel men's admiration.



(6:36)  It  is  only  phenomena that we clearly and distinctly understand,

which  heighten  our  knowledge  of  God,  and most clearly indicate

His  will and decrees. (37) Plainly, they are but triflers who, when they

cannot  explain  a  thing,  run  back to the will of God; this is, truly, a

ridiculous  way  of expressing ignorance.  (6:38) Again, even supposing

that  some  conclusion  could  be drawn from miracles, we could not

possibly  infer  from  them  the  existence of God: for a miracle being

an  event  under  limitations  is  the  expression of a fixed and limited

power;  therefore  we  could  not  possibly infer from an effect of this

kind  the  existence  of  a  cause  whose  power  is infinite, but at the

utmost  only  of  a cause  whose  power  is  greater  than  that of the

said  effect.  (6:39)  I  say  at the utmost, for a phenomenon may be the

result  of  many  concurrent  causes, and its power may be less than

the  power  of  the  sum  of  such causes, but far greater than that of

any  one  of  them  taken  individually.   (6:39a)  On  the  other hand, the

laws  of  nature,  as  we  have  shown,  extend  over infinity, and are

conceived  by  us  as,  after  a  fashion, eternal, and nature works in

accordance  with  them  in  a  fixed  and  immutable order; therefore,

such  laws  indicate to us in a certain degree the infinity, the eternity,

and the immutability of God.



(6:40)   We  may  conclude, then, that we cannot gain knowledge of the

existence  and  providence of God by means of miracles, but that we

can  far  better  infer  them  from  the  fixed  and  immutable  order of

nature.  (6:41)  By  miracle,  I  here mean an event which surpasses, or

is  thought  to  surpass,  human  comprehension: for in so far as it is

supposed  to  destroy  or  page 87  interrupt  the  order  of  nature or her

laws,  it not only can give us no knowledge of G-D, but, contrariwise,

takes  away  that  which  we  naturally have, and makes us doubt of

G-D and everything else.



(6:42)  Neither  do I recognize any difference between an event against

the  laws  of  nature and an event beyond the laws of nature (that is,

according  to  some,  an event  which  does  not  contravene nature,

though  she  is  inadequate  to  produce or effect it)—for a miracle is

wrought  in, and not beyond nature, though it may be said in itself to

be  above  nature,  and,  therefore,  must  necessarily  interrupt  the

order  of  nature,   which  otherwise  we  conceive  of  as  fixed  and

unchangeable,   according   to   God's   decrees.   (6:43)   If,   therefore,

anything  should  come to pass in nature which does not follow from

her  laws,  it  would  also be in contravention to the order which God

has  established  in  nature  for  ever through universal natural laws:

it  would,  therefore,  be  in  contravention  to God's nature and laws,

and,  consequently,  belief  in  it would throw doubt upon everything,

and lead to Atheism.



(6:44)  I  think  I  have  now sufficiently established my second point, so

that  we can again conclude that a miracle, whether in contravention

to,  or  beyond, nature, is a mere absurdity; and, therefore, that what

is  meant  in  Scripture  by  a  miracle  can  only be a work of nature,

which  surpasses,  or is believed to surpass, human comprehension. 

(6:45)  Before  passing  on  to  my  third  point,  I  will adduce Scriptural

authority  for  my assertion that God cannot be known from miracles. 

(6:46)  Scripture  nowhere  states the doctrine openly, but it can readily

be  inferred  from  several passages.  (47) Firstly, that in which Moses

commands  (Deut. xiii.)  that  a false prophet should be put to death,

even  though  he work miracles: "If there arise a prophet among you,

and  giveth  thee  a sign or wonder, and the sign or wonder come to

pass,  saying,  Let us go after other gods . . . thou shalt not hearken

unto  the  voice  of  that  prophet; for the Lord your God proveth you,

and  that  prophet  shall  be  put  to  death."  (6:48)  From  this it clearly

follows  that  miracles could be wrought even by false prophets; and

that,  unless  men  are  honestly  endowed  with  the true knowledge

and  love  of  G-D,  they  may  be  as easily led by miracles to follow

false  gods  as  to  follow  the  true  G-D; for these words are added:

"For  the   page 88   Lord  your  God  tempts  you,  that  He  may  know

whether  you  love  Him with all your heart {religion} and with all your

mind {philosophy}."



(6:49)  Further,  the  Israelites,  from  all  their  miracles, were unable to

form  a  sound  conception  of G-D,  as their experience testified: for

when  they  had  persuaded  themselves  that  Moses had departed

from  among  them,  they  petitioned Aaron to give them visible gods;

and  the  idea  of  God  they  had  formed  as  the  result  of  all their

miracles was—a calf {idolatry}!



(6:50)  Asaph,  though  he  had heard of so many miracles, yet doubted

of  the  providence  of  God, and would have turned himself from the

true way, if he had not at last come to understand true blessedness.

(See Ps. lxxiii.)  (6:51)  Solomon,  too, at a time when the Jewish nation

was  at  the  height  of its prosperity, suspects that all things happen

by chance.  (See Eccles. iii:19, 20, 21; and chap. ix:2, 3, &c.)



(6::52)  Lastly,  nearly  all  the  prophets  found  it very hard to reconcile

the  order  of nature and human affairs with the conception they had

formed  of God's providence, whereas philosophers who endeavour

to  understand  things  by  clear conceptions of them, rather than by

miracles,  have  always  found  the  task  extremely  easy—at  least,

such  of  them  as place true happiness solely in virtue and peace of

mind,  and  who aim at obeying Nature, rather than being obeyed by

her.  (6:53) Such persons rest assured that G-D directs nature accord-

ing  to  the  requirements  of  universal  laws,  not  according  to  the

requirements   of   the  particular  laws  of  human  nature,  and  trial,

therefore,  G-D's  scheme  comprehends,  not  only  the human race,

but the whole of Nature.



(6:54)  It  is  plain,  then,  from Scripture itself, that miracles can give no

knowledge  of  G-D,  nor  clearly  teach  us  the  providence  of G-D.                Metaphors

(55)  As  to  the  frequent  statements  in  Scripture,  that  God wrought

miracles  to make Himself plain to man—as in Exodus x:2, where He

deceived  the  Egyptians,  and gave signs of Himself, that the Israel-

ites  might  know  that  He  was God,—it  does  not, therefore, follow

that  miracles  really  taught  this  truth,  but  only  that the Jews held

opinions  which  laid  them  easily  open  to  conviction  by  miracles. 

(6:56)  We  have  shown  in  Chap. II.  that the reasons assigned by the

prophets,   or   those   which   are  formed  from  revelation,  are  not

assigned  in  accordance  with  ideas  universal  and  common to all,

but  in  accordance  with  the  accepted   page 89   doctrines,  however

absurd,  and  with  the opinions of those to whom the revelation was

given, or those whom the Holy Spirit wished to convince.



(6:57)  This  we  have illustrated by many Scriptural instances, and can

further  cite  Paul,  who to the Greeks was a Greek, and to the Jews

a  Jew.  (58)  But  although  these  miracles  could  convince the Egyp-

tians  and Jews from their standpoint, they could not give a true idea

and  knowledge of G-D, but only cause them to admit that there was

a  Deity  more  powerful  than  anything known to them, and that this

Deity  took special care of the Jews, who had just then an unexpect-

edly  happy  issue of all their affairs.  (6:59) They could not teach them

that  G-D  cares  equally for all, for this can be taught only by philos-

ophy:  the  Jews,  and  all  who  took their knowledge of God's provi-

dence  from  the  dissimilarity  of  human  conditions  of  life  and the

inequalities  of  fortune,  persuaded  themselves  that  God loved the

Jews  above  all  men,  though  they  did not surpass their fellows in

true human perfection.



(6:60)  I  now  go  on to my third point, and show from Scripture that the

decrees  and  mandates  of  G-D, and consequently His providence,              Metaphors

are  merely  the  order  of Nature—that  is, when Scripture describes

an  event  as  accomplished  by  G-D  or  G-D's will, we must under-

stand  merely  that  it  was  in  accordance with the law and order of

nature,  not,  as  most  people  believe, that nature had for a season

ceased   to   act,   or   that   her  order  was  temporarily  interrupted. 

(6:61)  But  Scripture  does not directly teach matters unconnected with

its  doctrine,  wherefore  it  has  no  care  to  explain  things  by their
                                                                                           {quibble}
natural   causes,   nor   to   expound   matters   merely   speculative.              Cash Value

(6:62)  Wherefore  our  conclusion  must be gathered by inference from

those  Scriptural  narratives  which  happen  to  be  written  more  at

length  and  circumstantially  than usual.  (63) Of these I will cite a few.



(6:64)  In  the  first  book  of  Samuel, ix:15, 16,  it  is  related  that  God

revealed to Samuel that He would send Saul to him, yet God did not

send Saul to Samuel as people are wont to send one man to another. 

(6:65) His "sending" was merely the ordinary course of nature.  (66)  Saul

was  looking  for  the asses he had lost, and was meditating a return

home  without them, when, at the suggestion of his servant, he went

  page 90  to  the  prophet  Samuel,  to  learn  from  him  where he might

find  them.  (6:67)  From  no  part  of  the  narrative  does  it appear that

Saul   had  any  command  from  God  to  visit  Samuel  beyond  this

natural motive.



(6:68)  In  Psalm cv. 24  it  is  said  that  God  changed the hearts of the

Egyptians,  so  that  they  hated the Israelites.  (69) This was evidently

a  natural  change,  as appears from Exodus, chap. i., where we find

no  slight  reason for the Egyptians reducing the Israelites to slavery.



(6:70)  In  Genesis ix:13,  God tells Noah that He will set His bow in the

cloud;  this  action  of  God's  is  but  another  way  of expressing the

refraction  and  reflection  which the rays of the sun are subjected to

in drops of water.



(6:71)  In  Psalm cxlvii:18,  the  natural  action  and  warmth of the wind,             Metaphors

by  which hoar frost and snow are melted, are styled the word of the

Lord,  and  in  verse 15  wind and cold are called the commandment               Examples

and word of God.



(6:72)  In  Psalm civ:4, wind and fire are called the angels and ministers

of  G-D,  and  various  other  passages of the same sort are found in

Scripture,  clearly  showing that the decree, commandment, fiat, and

word  of  G-D  are  merely  expressions  for  the  action and order of

Nature.



(6:73)  Thus  it  is plain that all the events narrated in Scripture came to

pass  naturally,  and  are  referred directly to G-D because Scripture,

as  we  have  shown,  does  not  aim  at  explaining  things  by  their

natural  causes,  but  only  at  narrating  what appeals to the popular

imagination,  and  doing  so  in  the manner best calculated to excite

wonder,  and  consequently to impress the minds of the masses with             Constitution

devotion.   (6:74)  If,  therefore,  events are found in the Bible which we

cannot  refer  to  their causes, nay, which seem entirely to contradict

the  order  of  nature,  we  must  not  come to a stand, but assuredly

believe   that   whatever   did   really   happen   happened  naturally.            Exodus—freedom

(6:75)  This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  in  the case of every

miracle  there  were  many  attendant  circumstances,  though these

were  not  always  related,  especially  where  the narrative was of a

poetic character.



(6:76)  The  circumstances of the miracles clearly show, I maintain, that

natural  causes  were needed.  (77)  For instance, in order to infect the

Egyptians  with  blains,  it  was  necessary  page 91  that Moses should
                            { ^ an inflammatory swelling or sore}
scatter  ashes  in  the  air (Exod. ix: 10);  the locusts also came upon

the  land  of Egypt by a command of God in accordance with nature,

namely,  by  an  east  wind  blowing  for  a whole day and night; and

they  departed  by  a very strong west wind (Exod. x:14, 19).  (6:78) By

a  similar  Divine  mandate the sea opened a way for the Jews (Exo.

xiv:21),  namely,  by  an east wind which blew very strongly all night.



(6:79)  So,  too, when Elisha would revive the boy who was believed to

be  dead,  he  was  obliged  to bend over him several times until the

flesh  of  the  child  waxed  warm,  and  at  last  he  opened his eyes

(2 Kings iv:34, 35).



(6:80) Again, in John's Gospel (chap. ix.) certain acts are mentioned as

performed  by Christ preparatory to healing the blind man, and there

are  numerous  other  instances showing that something further than

the   absolute   fiat   of   God   is   required   for   working  a  miracle.
                        { ^ an authoritative decree}



(6:81)  Wherefore  we  may  believe  that,  although  the circumstances

attending  miracles  are  not  related  always  or  in  full  detail, yet a

miracle was never performed without them.



(6:82)  This  is  confirmed  by  Exodus xiv:27,  where  it is simply stated

that  "Moses  stretched  forth  his  hand,  and  the  waters of the sea

returned  to  their  strength  in  the morning," no mention being made

of  a  wind;  but  in  the song of Moses (Exod. xv:10) we read, "Thou

didst  blow  with Thy wind (i.e. with a very strong wind), and the sea

covered  them."   (6:83)  Thus  the attendant circumstance is omitted in

the history, and the miracle is thereby enhanced.



(6:84)  But  perhaps  someone  will  insist  that  we  find  many things in

Scripture  which  seem  in  nowise  explicable  by natural causes, as

for  instance,  that  the  sins  of  men  and  their  prayers  can be the

cause  of  rain  and  of  the  earth's  fertility, or that faith can heal the

blind,  and  so  on.   (6:85)  But  I  think  I  have already made sufficient

answer: I have shown that Scripture does not explain things by their

secondary causes, but only narrates them in the order and the style

which  has  most  power  to  move  men, and especially uneducated             Hampshire:202

men,  to  devotion;  and therefore it speaks inaccurately of G-D and

of  events,  seeing  that  its  object  is  not  to  convince  the  reason,
            {bring Peace-of-Mind}
but  to  attract  and  lay hold of the imagination.  (6:86) If the Bible were       Mark Twain's "Little Story"

to  describe  the  destruction   page 92   of an empire in the style of poli-

tical  historians,  the  masses  would  remain  unstirred, whereas the

contrary is the case when it adopts the method of poetic description,

and  refers  all  things immediately to God.  (6:87) When, therefore, the

Bible  says  that  the  earth  is  barren because of men's sins, or that

the  blind  were  healed  by  faith,  we  ought  to take no more notice

than  when  it  says  that  God is angry at men's sins, that He is sad,                5P17 

that  He  repents  of the good He has promised and done; or that on

seeing  a  sign  he  remembers  something  He  had  promised,  and
                                                                                       {allegorically}
other  similar  expressions,  which are either thrown out poetically or

related   according   to   the   opinion  and  prejudices  of  the  writer.



(6:88)  We  may,  then,  be  absolutely certain that every event which is

truly  described  in  Scripture  necessarily happened, like everything

else,  according  to  natural  laws;  and  if anything is there set down

which  can  be proved in set terms to contravene the order of nature,            Durant:64087  

or  not  to  be  deducible  therefrom, we must believe it to have been
                                        {or to be interpreted metaphorically or allegorically}
foisted into the sacred writings by irreligious hands ^ ; for whatsoever 

is  contrary  to  nature  is also contrary to reason, and whatsoever is

contrary   to   reason   is  absurd,  and,  ipso  facto,  to  be  rejected.



(6:89)   There   remain  some  points  concerning  the  interpretation  of

miracles  to  be noted, or rather to be recapitulated, for most of them

have  been  already  stated.   (90)  These  I  proceed  to discuss in the

fourth  division  of  my  subject,  and  I  am  led  to do so lest anyone

should,  by  wrongly  interpreting  a  miracle,  rashly  suspect that he

has   found   something   in   Scripture   contrary   to  human  reason.



(6:91)  It  is  very  rare for men to relate an event simply as it happened,

without  adding  any  element  of  their own judgment.  (92) When they

see  or  hear  anything  new,  they  are, unless strictly on their guard,

so  occupied  with  their own  preconceived  opinions  that  they per-

ceive  something  quite  different  from the plain facts seen or heard,

especially  if  such facts surpass the comprehension of the beholder

or  hearer, and, most of all, if he is interested in their happening in a

given way.



(6:93)  Thus  men  relate  in chronicles and histories their own opinions

rather  than  actual  events,  so  that  one  and  the same event is so

differently  related  by  two  men  of  different  page 93  opinions,  that it

seems  like  two  separate  occurrences;  and, further, it is very easy

from  historical  chronicles  to  gather  the  personal  opinions  of the

historian.



(6:94) I could cite many instances in proof of this from the writings both

of  natural  philosophers and historians, but I will content myself with

one  only  from  Scripture,  and  leave the reader to judge of the rest.



(6:95)  In the time of Joshua the Hebrews held the ordinary opinion that

the  sun  moves  with  a  daily  motion,  and that the earth remains at

rest;  to  this  preconceived  opinion  they adapted the miracle which

occurred  during  their  battle  with  the  five  kings.  (6:96) They did not

simply  relate  that  that day was longer than usual, but asserted that

the  sun and moon  stood  still, or ceased from their motion—a state-

ment  which  would be of great service to them at that time in convin-

cing  and  proving  by  experience  to  the Gentiles, who worshipped

the  sun,  that  the  sun  was  under  the control of another deity who

could  compel  it to change its daily course.  (6:97) Thus, partly through

religious  motives,  partly  through  preconceived opinions, they con-

ceived  of  and  related  the  occurrence as something quite different

from what really happened.



(6:98)  Thus  in  order  to  interpret  the  Scriptural  miracles  and under-

stand  from  the  narration  of  them  how  they  really happened, it is

necessary  to  know  the  opinions  of  those  who  first  related them,

and  have  recorded  them  for  us in writing, and to distinguish such

opinions  from  the actual impression made upon their senses, other-

wise  we  shall  confound  opinions  and  judgments  with  the actual

miracle  as  it  really occurred: nay, further, we shall confound actual

events  with  symbolical  and  imaginary  ones.  (6:99)  For many things

are  narrated  in  Scripture  as  real,  and  were  believed  to  be real,

which   were   in   fact  only  symbolical  and  imaginary.  (6:100)  As, for

instance,  that  God  came  down  from  heaven  (Exod. xix:18,  Deut.

v:28),  and  that Mount Sinai smoked because God descended upon

it  surrounded  with  fire;  or,  again that Elijah ascended into heaven

in  a  chariot of fire,  with  horses of fire;  all these things were assur-

edly  merely  symbols  adapted  to  the  opinions  of  those who have

handed  them down to us as they were represented to them, namely,

as real.  (6:101) All who have any education know that G-D has    page 94

no  right  hand  nor  left;  that  He  is  not  moved nor at rest, nor in a

particular  place,  but  that  He  is  absolutely  infinite and contains in

Himself all perfections.



(6:102)  These  things,  I repeat, are known to whoever judges of things

by  the  perception  of pure reason, and not according as his imagin-

ation  is affected by his outward senses.  (6:103) Following the example

of  the masses who imagine a bodily Deity, holding a royal court with

a  throne  on  the  convexity  of  heaven,  above  the stars, which are

believed to be not very far off from the earth.



(6:104) To these and similar opinions very many narrations in Scripture

are  adapted,  and  should  not,  therefore,  be  mistaken  by philoso-

phers for realities.



(6:105)  Lastly,  in  order  to  understand,  in  the case of miracles,  what

actually  took  place,  we  ought  to  be  familiar  with Jewish phrases         Hebrew expression 

and  metaphors;  anyone  who  did  not make sufficient allowance for

these,   would   be  continually  seeing  miracles  in  Scripture  where

nothing  of  the kind is intended by the writer; he would thus miss the

knowledge  not  only of what actually happened, but also of the mind

of   the   writers  of  the  sacred  text.   (6:106)  For  instance,  Zechariah

speaking  of  some future war says (chap. xiv;7): " It shall be one day

which  shall  be  known  to  the  Lord,  not  day nor night; but at even

time  it  shall  be  light."  (6:106a)  In  these  words  he seems to predict a

great  miracle,  yet  he  only  means  that  the  battle  will be doubtful

the  whole  day,  that the issue will be known only to God, but that in

the  evening  they  will gain the victory: the prophets frequently used

to  predict  victories  and  defeats  of  the  nations  in similar phrases.

(6:107)  Thus  Isaiah, describing the destruction of Babylon, says (chap.

xiii:10): "The stars of heaven, and the constellations thereof, shall not

give  their  light; the sun shall be darkened in his going forth, and the

moon  shall  not  cause  her  light  to  shine."  (6:108)  Now I suppose no

one  imagines  that  at  the destruction of Babylon these phenomena

actually  occurred  any  more than that which the prophet adds, "For

I  will  make  the  heavens  to  tremble,  and  remove the earth out of

her place."



(6:109)  So,  too,  Isaiah  in foretelling to the Jews that they would return

from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  in  safety,  and  would  not  suffer from
                                     {Isa 48:21}
thirst  on  their  journey,  says: "And they thirsted  page 95 not when He

led  them  through  the  deserts; He caused the waters to flow out of

the  rocks  for them; He clave the rocks, and the waters gushed out."

(6:110)  These  words  merely  mean  that  the  Jews,  like other people,

found  springs  in  the desert, at which they quenched their thirst; for

when  the  Jews  returned  to Jerusalem with the consent of Cyrus, it

is admitted that no similar miracles befell them.



(6:111)  In  this  way  many  occurrences in the Bible are to be regarded

merely  as  Jewish  expressions.  (112)  There  is  no need for me to go

through  them  in  detail;  but  I  will call attention generally to the fact

that  the  Jews employed such phrases not only rhetorically, but also,
                                             {used for mere style or effect ^ }
and indeed chiefly, from devotional motives.  (6:113) Such is the reason

for  the  substitution  of "bless God" for "curse God" in 1 Kings xxi:10,

and  Job  ii:9,  and  for  all  things  being  referred  to God, whence it

appears  that  the  Bible  seems  to relate nothing but miracles, even

when  speaking  of  the  most  ordinary occurrences, as in the exam-

ples given above.



(6:114)  Hence  we  must believe that when the Bible says that the Lord
  {Exo 7:13}
hardened  Pharaoh's  heart,  it  only  means that Pharaoh was obsti-
                                               {Gen 7:11}
nate;  when  it  says that God opened the windows of heaven, it only

means  that  it  rained  very hard, and so on.  (115) When we reflect on

these  peculiarities,  and also on the fact that most things are related

very  shortly,  with  very  little  details  and almost in abridgments, we

shall  see  that  there  is  hardly  anything  in  Scripture which can be

proved  contrary  to  natural  reason, while, on the other hand, many

things  which  before seemed obscure, will after a little consideration

be understood and easily explained.



(6:116)  I  think  I  have  now  very clearly explained all that I proposed to

explain,  but  before  I  finish  this chapter I would call attention to the

fact  that  I  have  adopted a different method in speaking of miracles

to  that  which  I  employed  in treating of prophecy.  (117)  Of prophecy

I have  asserted  nothing  which could not  be inferred from promises

revealed  in  Scripture,  whereas  in  this chapter I have deduced my

conclusions  solely  from  the  principles  ascertained  by  the natural

light  of  reason.  (6:118)  I  have  proceeded  in  this  way advisedly, for

prophecy,  in  that  it  surpasses human knowledge, is a purely theo-

logical  question;  therefore,  I knew that I could not make any asser-

tions  about  it,  nor  learn   page 96  wherein it consists, except through

deductions  from  premises that have been revealed; therefore I was

compelled  to  collate the history of prophecy, and to draw therefrom

certain  conclusions  which would teach me, in so far as such teach-

ing  is  possible, the nature and properties of the gift.  (6:119)  But in the

case  of  miracles,  as  our  inquiry is a question purely philosophical

(namely,  whether  anything  can happen which contravenes or does

not  follow from the laws of nature), I was not under any such neces-

sity:  I  therefore thought it wiser to unravel the difficulty through pre-

mises  ascertained  and  thoroughly  known  by  the  natural  light  of

reason.  (6:119a)  I  say  I  thought  it  wiser,  for  I could also easily have

solved   the  problem  merely  from  the  doctrines  and  fundamental

principles  of  Scripture:  in  order  that  everyone  may acknowledge

this, I will briefly show how it could be done.



(6:120)  Scripture makes the general assertion in several passages that

nature's  course  is  fixed  and  unchangeable.  (121) In Ps. cxlviii:6, for

instance,  and  Jer. xxxi:35.   (6:122) The wise man also, in Eccles. i:10,

distinctly  teaches that  "there is nothing new under the sun,"  and in

verses 11, 12,  illustrating  the  same  idea,  he  adds  that  although

something  occasionally  happens  which  seems new, it is not really

new,  but  "hath  been  already  of  old  time,  which  was  before  us,

whereof   there   is   no  remembrance,  neither  shall  there  be  any

remembrance  of things that are to come with those that come after."

(6:123)  Again  in  chap. iii:11,   he  says,  "God  hath  made  everything
                                                                    {Ecc 3:14}
beautiful in his time,"  and immediately afterwards adds, "I know that

whatsoever  God  doeth,  it shall be for ever; nothing can be put to it,

nor anything taken from it."